Hypnosis: An examination into the history, theories and perspectives on hypnosis.

Hypnosis: An examination into the history, theories and perspectives on hypnosis.
Hypnosis is defined as an artificially induced state of relaxation and concentration in which deeper parts of the mind become more accessible (Collins, 2000). Hypnosis can be put forward as a matter of personal perspective. There are a number of definitions given by various academia on what hypnosis actually is; these include the suggestion theory, the modified sleep theory, and the conditioned response theory1. As a form of therapy, it has a relatively short history, given its origin in the 18th century2. The general consensus on what hypnosis is appears to be that it is an altered state of mind, one of deep relaxation. This in itself requires a definition of an ‘ altered state of mind’, which, according to Kirsch (1998)3, the term implies a change or changes in ones individual experience(s) . The central argument in the validity of hypnosis is that of suggestibility; the differences in the capability of people to be influenced by the will of another, and how this factors into behaviour in the trance-like state produced by hypnosis. There are a wide range of uses for hypnosis which have varied over time; it is now acknowledged as a valid addition of complementary medicine.4
A short history of hypnosis
The origin of hypnosis as a form of treatment is generally acknowledged as having occurred with Franz Anton Mesmer in 1778, with his methods of magnetism. He believed in a universal fluid that could be balanced in the body to cause healing through ‘magnetization’: this was achieved through direct (physical contact from the magnetizer) or indirect (iron plates attached to the patient’s body to concentrate the fluid). Mesmer did not achieve public recognition5. His theory was adjusted and officially classified as hypnotism by James Braid in Manchester in 18456. Braid’s method was to induce a trancelike state by requesting that subjects fix their gaze on a single point for a short time. Braids later successes implied that suggestion alone was the basic, underlying factor7. It should be noted that ‘suggestion’, as given in hypnosis terms, is generally indirect8 This was followed by A.A. Liebault in 1886, who developed a method of inducing sleep as a form of treatment, using little but suggestions to influence cures9. Mesmer’s original theory was extended by Charcot in 1878, who succeeded in isolating the nervous system as causing the effects of ‘hypnotic phenomena’. Janet his student, argued that people “can submit to suggestion only after modifying their psychological nature”10, contradicting Braids’ theory. Freud, who worked with Charcot, used hypnotism to study the unconscious. Originally, Freud used “hypnosis in an effort to directly suggest away annoying symptoms or even to ‘wipe away’ disturbing thoughts and memories”11. Older methods of hypnotism fell into disuse in the late 19th century, reportedly under the influence of Babinski12, returning with alternative methods based on ‘shock therapy’, often drugs, in the early 20th13.
Following is some of the various theories on hypnosis that have occurred over the years. Firstly, there is the suggestion theory, that hypnosis is an induced state of mind which creates increased suggestibility. Next there is the modified sleep theory, as hypnosis presents as the early stages of sleep14. One put forward by Charcot is that hypnosis was a pathological state similar to hysteria and anxiety (Cowen, 2004). A another example is the conditioned response theory, produced by Pavlov and his associates15, which suggests that a hypnotic trigger is the result of continued associations, such as the use of the word ‘sleep’ for hypnotic induction (Cowen, 2004).
Currently, the validity of clinical hypnotherapy as a treatment has been acknowledged as being justified. The Australian Medical Association has recently stated that:"As evidence emerges that some complementary medicines are effective, then it becomes ethically impossible for the medical profession to ignore them"16 (National Conference, May 2001). Although there have been conflicting views on what theory of hypnosis to support, the benefits shown by clinical trials and associated evaluations are evident. There has been an increasing interest shown in alternative medicines and the connection between the mind and body17, as well as the frequency of use of self-hypnosis.
Suggestion as motivation as opposed to the ‘altered state of consciousness’: common behaviours attributed to the ‘hypnotic trance’.
Behaviour that is commonly attributed to the ‘hypnotic trance’ is generally influenced by the therapist. One example is given by Zahrourek in 2002, is that the therapist leads the client into an unconscious search, in which experiential, problem solving and behavioural rehearsal is possible18. Another description of the behaviour that occurs in a trance state is a feeling of relaxation or tiredness, which is again induced by the therapist19, so much so that the subject(s) were unable to lift their eyelids.20 The type of behaviour that occurs in a hypnotic period depends on both the leading (suggestions) given by the therapist and the individual themselves.
There is a valid argument behind the theory that hypnosis is an ‘altered state of consciousness’, although it has been shown to tie in to being motivated by suggestion. One definition of hypnosis is given as an altered state of brain function induced through suggestion and influenced by interpersonal and cultural cues, which may produce an atypical subjective “experience, volition and physiology” (Hasewaga & Jamieson, 2002). This, for example, includes behaviour or experience which may be unexpected or perceived to be not normally achievable for that individual, given that:
“...amnesic subjects cannot remember things they should be able to remember; analgesic subjects do not feel pain that they should feel; subjects asked to be ‘blind’ and ‘deaf’ do not see and hear things that they should be able to see and hear...” (Kihlstrom 1997)21
The question that negates this perspective is whether there is a uniquely hypnotic state produced by suggestion (induction), and whether the experience that results from said suggestion is due to a dependence on this state (Kirsch, 2000)22 Variables such as compliance, motivation, absorption, imagination and expectancy have been emphasized (Sarbin and Coe, 1972)23 One argument in support of the theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness is that of time distortion; rather, the amnesia that occurs regarding the activities that occurred during the hypnotic state and the length of time which passed. There has been no link proven between susceptibility to hypnosis and the level of time distortion that occurs.24 Alternatively, absorption, or involvement with the activity during the hypnotic state, has been shown to correlate with susceptibility to hypnosis. The central argument against this is that tasks that require high attention have been shown to cause time underestimation (Brown & Boltz, 2002)25, whether under hypnosis or not (St. Jean et al.1994)26.
Criticisms of Hypnosis
There are a range of criticisms of clinical hypnotherapy, although it should be remembered that it is currently suggested for use as a complementary form of medicine and not as a sole treatment. “Studies show that hypnosis tends to cause people both to remember and to imagine more, thereby increasing both true and false memories.” (Harvard Mental Health, 2002). This particular view has received a fair amount of media attention. A commentary on a paper by Wagstaff (2000) has reflected upon the fact that a minority of individuals receive negative responses, post-hypnotic experience, such as headaches, nausea, dizziness and stiff necks27.
Conclusion
The definition of hypnosis is dependent on a number of factors. These include the various theories given for the causes of hypnosis, as well the argument over the suggestibility of the individual and the influence of the therapist, along with the relationship between the subject and therapist. Despite its criticisms, hypnosis has been shown to be beneficial as a form of alternative or complementary medicine. Given that general consensus appears to be that hypnosis is a state of mind, one of deep relaxation, it can be argued that hypnosis is relative to the individual, and thus a matter of a subjective perspective.

1 Cowen, L. (2004, September). What is hypnosis?. Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, 10(3), 105-107.
2 Chauchard, P. Hypnosis and Suggestion (1964), New York: Walker and Company, p3.
3 As cited in Hasegawa, H., & Jamieson, G. (2002, September). Conceptual issues in hypnosis research: explanations, definitions and the state/non-state debate. Contemporary Hypnosis, 19(3), 107.
4 Cowen, L. (2004, September). What is hypnosis?. Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, 10(3), 105-107.
5 Chauchard, P. Hypnosis and Suggestion (1964), New York: Walker and Company,p5.
6 Ibid, p7.
7 Scott Moss, C. Hypnosis in Perspective (1965), New York: Macmillan
8 Marcuse, F.L. Hypnosis: Fact and Fiction (1959), Baltimore: Pelican Books
9 Chauchard, P. Hypnosis and Suggestion (1964), New York: Walker and Company,p9.
10 Ibid, VII
11 Scott Moss, C. Hypnosis in Perspective (1965), New York: Macmillan
12 Chauchard, P. Hypnosis and Suggestion (1964), New York: Walker and Company,
13 Scott Moss, C. Hypnosis in Perspective (1965), New York: Macmillan, p15.
14 Cowen, L. (2004, September). What is hypnosis?. Journal of the Australian Traditional-Medicine Society, 10(3), 105-107.
15 Ibid, p106.
16 Ibid, p105.
17 Hypnosis: theory and application: part II. (2002, June). Harvard Mental Health Letter, Retrieved October 11, 2008, from CINAHL Plus with Full Text database.
18 Zahourek, R.P., (2002). Utilizing Ericksonian Hypnosis in Psychiatric-Mental Health Nursing Practice. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 38(1), 15-22.
19 Marcuse, F.L. Hypnosis: Fact and Fiction (1959), Baltimore: Pelican Books
20 Scott Moss, C. Hypnosis in Perspective (1965), New York: Macmillan, p15.
21 As cited in Hasegawa, H., & Jamieson, G. (2002, September). Conceptual issues in hypnosis research: explanations, definitions and the state/non-state debate. Contemporary Hypnosis, 19(3), 103-117
22 Ibid.
23 Ibid, p106.
24 Naish, P. (2006, March). Time to explain the nature of hypnosis?. Contemporary Hypnosis, 23(1), 33-46.
25 As cited in above.
26 Ibid.
27 As cited in with Lyn, S. J., Myer, E. & Mackillop, J. (2000). The systematic study of negative post-hypnotic effects: Research hypnosis, Clinical hypnosis and Stage hypnosis. Contemporary Hypnosis, 17(3), 127-131